发信人: randomly (random), 信区: THUCFS
标  题: for水平一冲刺小组——水平一复习参考建议
发信站: BBS 水木清华站 (Fri Mar 18 10:32:59 2005), 站内

有些长，还是值得一看的。
有些小组成员不上水木，麻烦大家转告：）

水平一复习参考建议

朋友邮寄过来大纲样题和8份模拟题，自己将9份试题的笔试部分做了一下，感觉水平一改革后的试题，对于非英语专业的本科学生来说，确实是英语水平测试的典范，以下仅是个人观点。

1）听力

a. 利用答题间隙争取主动。听录音前，快速浏览试卷上提供地已知信息——选项、题目或所给填充的材料等。明确听的目标，有的放矢地捕捉与题目有关地信息内容，减少听时地被动性和盲目性，提高选择地准确率；
b. 在听地过程中应捕捉关键词和句，即具体事件、时间、地点、人物、目的、因果等细节的实意词和概括文章中心思想的主题句。听对话时还要注意谈话双方相互肯定或重复的词语，讲话的口吻和语调，以此来判断谈话人对某一事件的态度和看法；
c. 报道或其他语段材料很多是按照其信息的重要性递减原则来安排的，即“倒金字塔”结构。语段的前面几句话非常重要，一般可以道出整个语段的核心内容，听下文时候，要注意抓住与这条主线相关的关键词，掌握材料传达的主要信息；
d. 边听边记，尤其是在听到某些数字信息时一定要作简短的笔记，避免选择答案时候记忆不清，可以利用文字、缩略语、符号、标记或草图等快速记下表述的中心思想、主要情节、人物、时间、地点等要素的关键词和主题句；
e. 在选择、判断答案时，可以运用排除法或反证法。如果听完一段材料后只抓住其中某些单词，行不成要点或主题，推断不出正确答案，可以将最不可能的选项排除，提高答题命中率；
f. 注意填充的准确性，单词拼写、单复数、时态、固定搭配、语态等；
g. 无论在听音或答题的过程中，应保持放松并集中精神，排除杂念。

2）阅读

a. 提高阅读效率，时间相对不是很充足，但题目本身的难度不是很大，关键在“会找”和“会分析”；b. 略读：总结或归纳段落的中心大意、段落的可能出处或作者的写作手法等，因此，读完段落时，在选项中要找一个恰如其分、高度概括的、能覆盖段落全部内容的中心大意，根据内容把段落归结为何种类别、判断属性等，或段落总体给读者的印象。也许没有时间仔细琢磨，可以根据自己的第一印象先看题目，后找答案。阅读时候，注意第一段的内容，以及每段的第一句和最后一句，了解体裁。大意等。
c. 查读：先看题目，根据题意在段落中迅速找出某一具体细节，不必全文通读。如果找年代或地点，可以把注意力集中到有关数字或大写字母上。有时候，只需要找某个首字母就可以找到有关内容。查读材料比较长时，还要判断需要查的内容可能出现的部位，有的内容按字母排列，有的内容按照时间顺序或其他方式排列，只要用目光将全文扫描一下，心中就有数了。
d. 阅读理解中的解答、完成句子、完成图表、完成概要等，一定要联系文章本身，直接从原文中“找”或自己简要概括，确保自己所答内容表达正确，符合命题者意图；
e. 翻译一定要联系上下文，不要曲解作者本意。翻译完毕以后，自己读一下，看看自己的译文像不想中文，做适当的修饰和调整。

3）写作

a. 应用文写作：水一要求对letters (e-mail), notes, memoranda, reports 和notices等常用应用文体的考察，这些都是比较实用的日常问题，注意格式，合理安排格式，覆盖所有内容考点，避免较大的语法错误，注意语体的选择；个人觉得，丁往道老师的《英语写作手册》（应用文写作部分），北京：外语教学与研究出版社，1997年；傅似逸老师的《高校英语应用文写作教程》，北京：北京大学出版社，2003年，等都是比较不错的参考书。

b. 说明文/议论文写作：

(第一部分：基础篇，第二部分：句子提高篇，第三部分：词汇积累篇，这三部分内容都是自己曾经学习过程中的摘抄整理，希望对大家有所帮助^_^）

第一部分基础篇

一、题目及标点：
1．题目：
题目应写在第一行的中间。题目的第一个和最后一个词应用大写字母开始，中间的词（包括复合词中在连字符后面的词）也都应大写，但冠词、并列边记号（and, or, but, not, for）、介词和不定式的to除外，例如：
My First Visit to the Palace Museum
The People Without a Country
Rules to Abide By
Dickens and David Copperfield
What Can the Artist Do in the World of Today?
The Myth of “Negro Literature”
The English-Speaking People in Quebec
题目后不加句话。如题目的疑问句，应加问号；如是间接引语形式的疑问句（如上面的第六个），则不加问号。题目中引用的词语或文章的标题，应加引句，铝名则在下面画线或用斜体标明。
2．标点符号：
结构完整的句子，不论长短后面都打句号。
不要用逗号连接两个并列从句；应用逗号加边词，或用分号。
把逗号和句号分清：逗号带个小尾巴（，）；句号是个黑圆点（.），不是一个圆圈（。），中的句号才为小圆圈。
在疑问句后用问号，但在改为间接引语的问句后不用问号：
“Have you done your exercises?” the teacher asked.
The teacher asked whether we had done our exercises.
感叹句只用在需要强调的感叹句或表示强烈感情的词语后面。不要用得太多。
直接引语庆放在两个引号之间。说话人和表示“说”的动词可放在引语前面、后面和中间：
She said,“I have decided to take the examination.”
“I have decided to take the examination,” she said.
“I have decided,” she said, “to take the examination.”
注意上面三个句子的标点符号用法。第一句中的She said后面用逗号；第二句的引语后打逗号，she是小写；第三句在decided和she said后面都用逗号，而且引语的第二部分也用小写字母开始。总之，引语和she said被视作一个句子，只是引语的第一词要大写。
二、作文构思
作文是考核学生逻辑思维、展开和理清思路、以充分论据证明、并用规范的英语写出来的能力。水平I考试要求考生在30分钟内写出一篇不少于150词完整的作文。
（1）阅读题目，抓住主题。仔细阅读所提问题及作文要求，确定文章的体裁及主题思想，避免跑题。
（2）列出提纲。提纲对于作文是十分必要和重要的。提纲即是文章的框架结构。审题之后，从整体布局来构筑文章的框架。如果是议论文，论点确定之后，尽量把能论证该论点的典型论据快速地想出来，用关键词的形式写下来，并且按某种顺序排列开。然后作一下取舍，保留相关的，放弃无关紧要的。可用十分钟时间构思内容写出提纲。完善、全面的提纲可使你在这个框架内填充、扩展，而不至于跑题，或避免想到哪儿就写到哪儿的盲目性。
（3）紧扣主题，扩展提纲。写作文时切记要围绕主题思想展开，用一个或几个完整的句子把每个论据表达出来，注意使用关联词语。要使文章内容充实，言之有物，不要勉强凑数。如议论文要论据充分，能把某一论题论证清楚，语言运用应得体。用二十五分钟写作。一般的作文题目（如说明文）是要求老先生对某问题进行说明，运用某些方法解释说明。考生头脑中应考虑如何使读者了解你所说明的问题。议论文常常是要考生比较和对比两种对立的观点，考生要支持一种观点，反驳另一观点。考生应考虑举出什么论据才能说服读者接受你的观点或劝说。
（4）认真检查，消灭错误。写作文时要留出一些时间检查句子是否通顺。是否有语法错误，用词是否准确，恰当。
作文题往往是通过问题的形式出现，要求考生根据问题写出作文。例如：People have different preferences for spending leisure time. Some people are very active physically, and like spending their free time running, swimming, playing football or tennis. Other people would rather spend their leisure time in more quiet ways, like reading or listening to music, Compare the ways of spending leisure time, Which type of activity are you more likely to choose? Why?
很显然，该问题要求你说明两种方式的特点或益处，然后提出你的观点并说明理由，举出例证。
第一步：尽快写下你所想到有关该话题所有的想法（ideas）。暂不考虑这些想法好与坏，可用词、短语或缩略式形式，暂不加以组织。如：
Active activities
Jogging, swimming, football, tennis, etc.
make body strong
good for heart
many people exercise
made friends
work together, therefore teamwork
choose your own time
Quiet activities
Calm, relax, therefore good for the mind
Group activities
Discussing, listening to music, interesting
Going to movies, concerts, etc, wonderful
Individual
my preferred type of activity
reasons
examples
第二步：看一下所写出的词或短语，再看一下问题，对所写出的进行组织、分类、分层次，划去无关的。
Active activities
jogging , swimming, football, tennis, etc.
make body strong
good for heart
injure if carelessly
feel tired
many people exercise
make friends
work together, therefore teamwork
choose your own time
Quiet activities
calm, relax, therefore good for the mind
group activities
discussing, listening to music, interesting
going to movies, concerts, etc., wonderful
sleeping
individual
my preferred type of activity
reasons
examples
第三步：写出提纲，如：
I.  Active activities
   A. Healthy for boby
   1.Good for heart
   2.Make you strong
  B. Group activities
  1. Make activites
  2. Learn to work together/ teamwork
II. Quiet activities
  A. Healthy for the mind
  1. You can be calm
2. You can relax
B. Examples
1. Listening to music is interesting
2. Going to movies, concerts, is wonderful
III. My preferred type of activity
A. Reasons
B. Examples
第四步：把提纲展开，写成完整作文。
构思在作文过程中十分重要，也就是制定计划的过程，不要以为这是a waste of time.
三、提  纲
建筑师在盖房子之前，总要绘制一张蓝图，在头脑中先构筑框架。同样，作文首先应对要写的话题进行构思，在头脑中勾勒出基本轮廓，构筑框架。首先应确定从哪几方面展开话题。例如：Advertising is common throughout the world as a way of letting the public know about a product. Some people fell that advertising is generally helpful, while others feel it is often harmful. Discuss your idea of good and bad effects of advertising, and decide whether you think it is generally helpful or harmful. Use specific examples to support your discussion.
Write a composition of about 150 words on the following topic:
The Good and Bad Effects of Advertising
You are to write in four paragraphs.
In the first paragraph, state your point of view.
In the second paragraph, describe the harmful effects and give specific examples.
In the third paragraph, describe the helpful effects and give specific examples.
In the last paragraph, restate your point of view.
Marks will be awarded for content, organization, grammar and appropriateness. Failure to follow the instructions may result in a loss of marks.
第一步：这个题目要求学生对二者进行比较，证明其中一个更重要。该题目可使你想到：
I. Though these signs of advertising are often disliked, I feel that, overall, advertising has very positive results.
II. The harmful effects of advertising are obvious (提出广告有害的一面)
In general, however, I think that the positive results of advertisements are beneficial to society and individuals. (广告有益的方面)。
III. All in all, for a wise and educated shopper, the helpful effects of advertising outweigh the harmful effects.(结论)
第二步：上述每句话都起topic sentence的作用，代表一段或一部分。然后围绕每个TS开始思考（brainstorming），把能想到的、对该句起supporting details到论据或说明、起作用的句子都写下来，也就是developing sentences，先不考虑顺序。显而易见，第一句代表Introduction，第二句代表Body，第三句代表Conclusion。如：
1.  Though these signs of advertising are often disliked, I feel that, overall, advertising has very positive result.
a. In most countries in the world, advertising is common.
b. You can see posters on doors, signs in buses, pictures in magazines, and commercials on TV.
c. We benefit a lot from advertisements.
II. I.  The harmful effects of advertising are obvious.
a. When you are listening to beautiful music, on the radio, a commercial is disturbing when it interrupts your program and changes your mood.
b. Television commercials are the worst of all.
c. Your program is stopped, and you are forced to watch an advertisement unless you actively change the channel of leave the room.
d. Most advertisements are exaggerating.
e. I think that there should be laws to limit the advertisers fight to interrupt TV and radio programs.
2. In general, however , I think that the positive results of advertisements are beneficial to society and individuals.
a. When I do shopping, I can use advertisements in newspapers to compare prices, features, and quality of the product I want to buy.
b. By being more informed, I can buy something that will benefit me in the long run.
c. With advertisements, people save a lot of time in shopping, looking for jobs, etc.
d. Advertisements result in competition, which enables customers to buy more good things.
IIII. All in all, for a wise and educated shopper, the helpful effects of advertising outweigh the harmful effects.
第三步：将上述developing sentences按逻辑（文章内容）排成顺序（不必重写一遍），删去不切题的扩展句：
I.  a. In most countries in the world, advertising is common.
b. You can see posters on doors, signs in buses, pictures in magazines, and commercials on TV.
c. We benefit a lot from advertisements.
Though these signs of advertising are often disliked, I feel that, overall, advertising has very positive results.
II. 1.  The harmful effects of advertising are obvious.
a. When you are listening to beautiful music, on the radio, a commercial is disturbing when it interrupts your program and changes your mood.
b. Television commercials are the worst of all.
c. Your program is stopped, and you are forced to watch an advertisement unless you actively change the channel or leave the room.
d. Most advertisements are exaggerating
e. I think that there should be laws to limit the advertisers right to interrupt TV and radio programs.
2.  In general, however, I think that the positive results of advertisements are beneficial to society and individuals.
a. When I do shopping, I can use advertisements in newspapers to compare prices, features, and quality of the product I want to buy.
b. By being more informed, I can buy something that will benefit me in the long run.
c. With advertisements, people save a lot of time in shopping, looking for jobs, etc.
d. Advertisements result in competition, which enables customers to buy more good things.
IIII. All in all, for a wise and educated shopper, the helpful effects of advertising outweigh the harmful effects.
第四步：将提纲扩展成文章，把各点扩展成句子，并运用关联词语使句子连贯。
In most countries in the world, advertising is common. You can see posters on doors, signs in buses, pictures in magazines, and commercials on TV. Though there signs of advertising are often disliked, I feel that, overall, advertising has very positive results.
The harmful effects of advertising are obvious. When you are listening to beautiful music, on the radio, a commercial is disturbing when it interrupts your program and changes your mood. Television commercials are the worst of all. Your program is stopped, and you are forced to watch an advertisement unless you actively change the channel or leave the room. I think that there should be laws to limit the advertisers’ right to interrupt TV and radio programs.
In general, however, I think that the positive results of advertisements are beneficial to society and individuals. When I do shopping, I can use advertisements in newspapers to compare prices, features, and quality of the product I want to buy. By being more informed, I can buy something that will benefit me in the long run. With advertisements, people save a lot of time in shopping, looking for jobs, etc.
All in all, for a wise and educated shopper, the helpful effects of advertising outweigh the harmful effects.
四、句子写作
句子是构成段落及文章的基本单位。首先，一个句子要表达一个完整的意思；其次，句子要符合语法规则；再次，句中词不达意语搭配要符合惯用法，避免造出Chinglish。句子结构要完整（具有主语和谓语或宾语），力求简洁，能用单词表达的就不要用短语，能用简单句表达的就不用复杂句。读者应避免：
（1）残缺句（sentence fragment）。如：
The meeting was canceled. Because the manager fell ill . 应改成：The meeting was canceled because the manager fell ill.
(2)连写句(run-on sentence: two or more sentences run together)
Reading newspapers is a good way to improve your English, however, it is not the only efficient way.应改成：Reading newspapers is a good way to improve your English. However, it is not the only efficient way.
(3)垂悬修饰语(dangling modifier)
After graduating from middle school, my parents sent me to Canada to receive college education. 应改成：After I graduated / After my graduation, my parents sent me……
He failed the exam last month, consequently, causing him to feel sad for a week. 应改成：He failed the exam last month, which caused him……
尽量多用常用词，避免使用没有把握的词。平时应养成抄写、熟记精彩句子及常用句型的习惯。例如：The reasons are as follows(原因如下)
学会使用关联词。关联词语也称连贯手段（ cohesive devices），转承事，逻辑联系语，或过渡词语（transitions），是将文章前后连贯一致的手段。它的作用是使相互关联的词与词之间、句子之间、段落之间自然衔接起来。阅读中这类词语被称作标志词（signal words），因为它们标志着词、句子或段落之间的关系，读者可根据它们准确地理解作者果表达的意思。我们写作文的目的是给别人看。因此，我们应学会使用关联词，使读者容易理解我们的意思。例如：
She works hard at biology. She is not interested in it.
She works hard at biology though she is not interested in it. 或
She is not interested in biology. However, she works hard at it.
表示同一或类似的逻辑关系的关联词语可以用不同的词语。如：
(1)The lake is polluted     (2)All the living things in it have become extinct.
(1)表示原因，    (2)表示结果，连接如下：
                       as a result,
                       consequently,
                       so,
The lake is polluted ,      therefore             all the living things
                       thus
                       because of this,
                       for this reason
                       hence,
in it have become extinct.
熟记一些名言、格言等。格言用词简洁、恰当，结构严谨，寓意深刻，可作为说服力极强的论据。例如：
Make hay while the sun shines晒草要趁阳光好。
Work has a bitter root but sweet fruit.工作之根苦，工作之果甜。
Histories make men wise; poets witty; mathematics subtle; natural philosophy deep; moral grave; logic and rhetoric able to contend.
                                              ---F. Bacon
读史使人明智；读诗使人灵秀；数学使人周密；自然哲学使人深刻；伦理学使人庄重；逻辑修辞之学使人善辩。
                                             ——培根
五、段落的写作
段落是由句子组成的。构成段落的句子有三种：
（1）主题句（topic sentence）：表示该段的中心思想（main idea or controlling idea），特点是概括（general）或抽象（abstract）。一个段落通常只有一个主题句，主题句一般在段首，是一段中最重要的句子。它告诉读者你在这一段中要说什么。好的主题句有助于读者理解整个段落。写主题句应注意：
（2）主题句不是陈述事实(statement of fact), 因为陈述事实的句子不含有需要进一步解释的观点。如：
I lost my key to the dormitory.
Yesterday was Sunday.
上述两个句子本身已很具体、清楚，不会使人产生疑惑。因此，这样的句子不会传达给读者一个段落的中心思想。如果把“I lost my key to the dormitory” 改成 “I had bad luck yesterday,” 读者就可以根据这句话推断出作者要在这一段中讲述事情的经过。
（2）主题句还应起到限定话题（topic）范围的作用。一个话题所指范围广阔，主题句可将其限定在某一方面。如：
话题（topic）     computer
主题句（TS）     Computers are playing an increasingly important role in modern society.(its importance); Computers relieve people of great burden of doing complicated work.(benefit brought by computers); Computers make people lazy. (disadvantage of computers);  I like playing games on computers.(one’s hobby); I think that computer has bought us more good than harm. (personal opinion) 此外，每段的主题句都应围绕文章的主题而设计。
（2）扩展句（developing sentence，也称推展句）：对主题句起支持或说明作用的句子(supporting details),对TS起辅助作用，特点是表义较具体。扩展句围绕主题名展开。在写完主题句后，应尽力联想能证明、说明或论证主题句的句子，而与主题句无关的句子（irrelevant sentences）只会使你思路错乱，给读者造成理解上的障碍，使文章杂乱无章，因此应删掉这样的名子。
写扩展句的方式很多，如举出事实，列出数据，描述细节，讲述个人经历等。
（3）结尾句（concluding sentence,  也称结论句）：总结段落主旨的句子。当一段话有充分的扩展句说明或证明主题句时，你需要加上最后一句（结尾句）来结束这一段。写结尾句有不同的方式，如通过重述主题思想来总结（sum up）这一段，也可以通过提出解决问题的方法，或提出一个问题，或说出事件发展结果。有些段落自然发展到末尾，并没有concluding sentence.段落的结构应严谨。主题句应具有概括性；扩展句之间应连贯、流畅，与主题句关系应密切，起到支持主题句的作用，并围绕主题句展开；结尾句应自然。整段应浑然一体，条理清晰，逻辑性强。此外，学生还应多背诵一些精彩段落，做到脱口而出。这对提高写作能力十分有利。
六、文章写作
初学写作者可用三段式写一般的题目。这是比较实用的格式。各部分作用或功能如下：
1引言（Introduction）：提出或引出话题、论题。文字简洁，通常用一到三个句子。引言段必须指出文章的主题，使推展段有所遵循。引言段的写作方法有许多。如：
（I）引语  如引用别人说的话：
People often say, “Even without going out of my house, I know all that is happening in the world.” I think it is true. You may ask me why. My answer is that we can keep ourselves informed of everything by watching TV.
又如引用名言、格言：
“ Where there’s a will, there’s a way” means that if you really want to do something , you will find a way to succeed. One of the indispensable qualities to success is a firm will. A great man is always one that has a remarkable firm will.
(2) 提出别人的观点及论据，以便在正文中通过驳论、对比的方式，来证明自己的观点的正确。如：
Some people think that the urgent task is to develop economy on a large scale.  Any people, especially in rural areas, are living in poverty. Many children cannot afford to receive the compulsory education. They believe that the only way to get rid of povert is well-developed economy that is bound to bring prosperity.
(3) 定义法和举例法如：
A hobby can be anything a person likes to do in his spare time. Hobbyists watch birds, climb mountains and raise flowers. Hobbyists also paint pictures, play musical instruments, and collect everything from stamps to shells. Different people may have different hobbies. People take up hobbies because these activities offer enjoyment , friendship, knowledge and relaxation. Hobbies help people relax after periods of hard work, and offer interesting activities for persons who are too old to work. Anyone, rich or poor, old or young, sick or well, can follow a satisfying hobby.
(4)提问法  提出一个问题，旨在激起读者的兴趣。如：
[作文题]： Some people say that physical exercise should be a required part of every school day. Other people insist that students should spend the whole day on academic studies. Which opinion do you agree with? Use specific reasons to support your answer.
[引言段]：Physical exercise and academic studies are both important in school life which play a far-reaching role throughout our lifetime. But when it comes to spending the whole school day on academic studies, I would rather make a wise choice. That is, I would prefer physical exercise to be a required part of every school day. Why should physical exercise be required?
(5)列出问题中的两种对立观点，选择其中的一种。如：
People have different ideas about how students should spend their4 school days. Some believe that students should spend the whole day on academic studies. Others believe that physical exercise should be a required part of ever school day. I think both ways have their advantages. But I prefer the latter.
作者采用这样的引言段，往生理要在推展段中论证：Why I prefer the latter.
（6）提出两种观点，不做选择。如：
[作文题]： Some people choose friends who are different from themselves. Others choose friends who are similar to themselves. Compare the advantages of having friends who are different from you with the advantages of having friends who are similar to you. What kind of friend do you prefer for yourself? Why?
[引言段]： People choose friends in different ways. Some people like to choose those who are different from themselves, whereas others prefer those who are similar to themselves. It seems to me that each of the two ways has its advantages.
作者采用这样的引言段，往往要在推展段中对两种观点。总之，文章的开头要写得新颖得体，富有吸引力，才能引起读者阅读的兴趣。
II正文（Body）：说明或论证部分（也称推展段），是文章的主体部分。作者运用某些方法对所提出的问题进行说明，或对所提出的观点，举出充分论据进行论证。正文部分要注意合理地安排层次，使文章内容上下连贯呼应，脉络清楚，经纬分明，结构严谨，浑然一体。
III 结尾（Conclusion）：通过上述论证得出的结论（也称结论段）。简短，通常用一、两个概括性的句子。结尾要写得简洁巧妙，才能令读者思索回味、加深印象。开头与结尾的写法多种多样，但都是为了表现与深化主旨，为了增强文章的表达效果。结尾是文章的重要组成部分，一般情况，结尾要依据前面各段所述内容，自然顺势，水到渠成，即“bring what you have written to a natural conclusion”。如：
Therefore, due to the indispensable effect of good habits on a successful life, people must try hard to form good habits, especially from early childhood.
有时也用概括总结的方式结尾，即写出a summary，或重述强调观点，即restate you view。
读者每写完一篇作文时都要问自己下列问题：
Essay checklist：
1．Did you read the question carefully? Did you look for the key words to guide your organization (i. e. compare, contrast, describe, interpret, support, defend, etc.) ?
2．Did you answer the question completely, and answer only the question (no irrelevant material)?
3．Does the first paragraph give the reader enough signals to understand the direction and purpose of the essay? Is the topic sentence clearly written?
4．Did you use examples and facts to support and defend your statements? Are there any irrelevant supporting de-tails?
5．Does your final paragraph summarize your main points?
   Did you clearly state your opinion and defend it?
6．Did each paragraph discuss only one idea or topic? Do all the sentences in that paragraph relate to that idea?
7．Did you leave a margin and indent the first word of each paragraph?
        Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
   xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx.
        Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
   xxxxxxxxxxxxxx.
8．Did you quickly check our writing for grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors?
The essay should:
* be well organized and well developed.
* clearly answer the question.
* support the main statement and give examples.
* be unified around the main idea.
* be consistently able to demonstrate good use of English.
* show variety in choice of words.

第二部分句子提高篇

（摘自马衰：《标准英语写作》，北京大学出版社，2002年）

§1 句子的逻辑性
1. 逻辑清晰的句子
逻辑清晰的句子就是有思想、有内容、不罗嗦、不沉重的句子。每部著作要有中心观点(major argument),每篇文章都要有中心思想(main-idea)，每节文章或每个段落要有主题句(topic sentence),而每个句子则要围绕中心思想和主题句来表达，避免离题和重复的用词。有逻辑思想并不是说每句话都要有逻辑推理，而是说每句话都要有表达一个有意义有价值的思想。我们必须区分两类句子：一类是表达事实(fact),另一类表达思想(idea)。事实指简单的众所周知的事情(common sence),或叙述一件新闻和一个故事。思想指代表个人对某专题的立场、观点和看法(即idea, opinion, argument, attitude, stand, view等)。
    下面举一些思想逻辑性不强的句子加以改正：
(1)    From birth to death, time is limited for all of us, so we should make good use of it.
Life is short. One should lead a meaningful life by making good use of time.
(2)    Everyone dreams of attaining success in his career. However, the way to success is not a smooth one.
To be successful in career calls for sustained effort and persistence.
(3)    Failure is quite a common thing in our life.
No success is achieved without failure./ Failure is inevitable on the way to success.
(4)    Friends are of great importance to all of us.
We depend on friends for success in life and career.
(5)    People’s opinion about whether pets are good for people vary form person to person.
Keeping pets in the neighborhood has aroused increasing concerns in society.
(6)    Thrifty people take great care not to waste anything when they are doing things and not to waste any money when they are spending it.
Some people still tend to be thrifty, though they have plenty of money, while the concept of thrifty is foreign to others.
(7)    Praise is very useful and important to a person. When a person has done something good and is praised, he feels good.
Many of us are encouraged by praises to press forward at work.
(8)    Almost everyone likes sports. Men and women, boys and girls, young and old all over the world, enjoy playing games.
As a way of keeping fit and providing pastimes, Shadow Boxing is enjoyed by the old and young alike in many parts of China.
(9)    As is well known, smoking is harmful to our health.
Though the idea that many diseases are related to smoking is deep-rooted in the mind of people, total cigarette consumption is not declining in our country.
(10) Every person loves money, but he cannot make it without hard work.
One needs to work in order to keep a minimum living style.
(11) There are many kinds of art or literature, and it is also the case with music.
Like literature and art, music comes in a variety of forms.
(12) People often talk about the relationship between material and spiritual well-being. Different people have different views.
The relationship between obtaining wealth and maintaining righteousness is a widely concerned issue, on which opinions are diverse.
(13) Money is regarded as the most important in human life.
Money is not always placed as the top priority in decision making.
(14) In modern society, more and more people begin to face the problem of health and wealth.
One often finds himself landed in a predicament and forced to make a choice between obtaining wealth and keeping in good health.
(15) There are always two sides to a question. Part-time jobs are no exceptions. They have either the pro side or the con side.
Doing part-time jobs has advantages and disadvantages.
(16) We have all been aware of the importance of the coordination of our time.
In most cases work is successfully done on the basis of cooperation.
(17) As is known to all, competition is a much discussed issue in our social life.
In recent years competition in college entrance exams has become a heated topic of discussion among parents and teachers.
(18) Nowadays, more and more teachers and students have realized the importance of outside reading. Outside reading helps us a lot in our studies.
Teachers and students are becoming increasingly aware of the role that the out-of-class reading plays in assisting students with school work.
(19) It is common knowledge that reading is always profitable. But we should also know that different books are designed for different people.
Books are written to serve readers with specific reading objectives and tastes.
(20) Books provide us with much knowledge for our work. We need serious reading for our work as well as plain reading for our life.
We read scholarly and professional books to achieve success in career and light readings to relax after work.
(21) Books are our friends. Books give us knowledge, and knowledge is power.
We need reading to broaden our horizons of perception so as to be competitive in the age of information explosion.
(22) Writing is useful to people in all walks of life. We get knowledge form books. Only by means of writing can newspapers keep us informed of the daily news of all parts of the word.
Books and newspapers provide knowledge and information and keep one abreast of the current international situation.
(23) The generation gap is a common phenomenon all over the world.
The generation gap does not always hinder mutual understanding and cooperation between the elderly and youths.
(24) It is very important to keep our city clean. To keep our city clean can beautify our environment and reduce pollution.
Our environmental condition can be improved by clearing away the rubbish, removing the debris and planting trees.
(25) For the sake of their children’s studies, many parents consider it a necessary means to have a family tutor.
Many parents believe that long-term benefits for their children’s academic performance by hiring a family tutor outweigh the financial losses.
(26) Weekends to people mean that people can have two-days’ good rest.
The two-day weekend gives working Chinese plenty of time for their rest and travel.
(27) Everyone spends weekends in his own ways.
One chooses his or her own way of spending weekends.
(28) Different people have different opinions about how to be a good student. As for me, I think a good student should have at least three important qualities.
To my mind, a good student should have three qualities.
(29) In our daily life we can get a lot of benefit from science.
Breakthroughs in science and technology improve qualities of our life.
(30) Telephones are among the most popular and convenient devices ever invented. Telephones help save not only time, energy, but monry as well. So they are welcomed by more and more people.
Telephone is one of the most marvelous inventions in human history and has become an indispensable pare of our life.
(31) Computers possess a great variety of advantages and applications.
Computers show amazing advantages and their applications in various fields remarkably simplify the office work.
(32) In recent years, with the development of industry and population growth, more and more vehicles are running on the roads.
Due to the rapid growth of economy, population, and the improvement of living standard, large cities are burdened with an increasing number of automobiles and traffic jams.
(33) Road accidents are often reported in this country.
This year traffic accidents have jumped by 25%.
(34) It is known that environmental protection is an important subject of science. Scientists spend much money and a lot of effort on settling it.
As the environmental pollution has become an emergent issue of our governments at all levels, scientists are putting in substantial amounts of time and research fund on ways of solving them.
(35) Energy resources are those materials which can supply us with power.
Nuclear power is a very promising energy resource to ease the shortage of oil, coal and gas deposits in China.
(36) Bicycles have become part of our lives. It is necessary for us to own a bicycle.
The majority of Chinese still depend upon the bicycle for transportation, but the country needs laws and facilities to regulate its use.
(37) With the living standards of people rising year by year, television is now playing a very important role in people’s lives and TV programs have been an essential part of our entertainment.
Though the life of the ordinary Chinese family is now enriched with the television, people are often upset with unsatisfactory TV programs.
(38) Plastics are very useful because they have many good properities. First of all, they are light and strong. Next, they do not rust. Finally, they have high chemical stability and give considerable resistance to different solvents, acids and alkalis.
Most plastics are popular for their properities of lightness, durability and resistance to solvents, acid and alkalis.
(39) Making cities greener has many advantages.
Making our cities green is only part of our long-term campaign for ridding the environment of the pollution.
(40) Our world is filled with sounds. When people speak, they utter sounds. When birds sing they end out sounds. Traffic also makes sounds.
The Saturday morning free market at Haidian, Beijing, is a sight of hubbub, full of noises of people, animals and automobiles.
(41) All the people think that honesty is a virtue.
Poverty often drives one to seek profits at the expense of honesty.
(42) Newspapers provide us with information about events beyond our own small world. Without newspaper we would not know what is happening in our own society or abroad. The important events we learn from the newspapers might affect our lives and broaden our knowledge of the outside world.
Since the beginning of economic reform and opening to the world in 1978, newspapers in China have skyrocketed in number and quantity. But they still fall short of our needs for keeping track of global events without getting wired on the internet.
(43) Obligations to our parents are very important. Parents are the most beloved persons in the world.
Chinese culture stress filial obedience and duty, while Western culture values equality and independence.
(44) It is known that pollution is very harmful to human beings.
Though it is well known that pollution harms human health, we often find some people littering places with bottles and cans and factories bumping toxic chemicals into the river.
(45) Some people are pessimistic when they think about the future. They are of the opinion that the world population is increasing so quickly that the world has become too crowded and too noisy, and natural resources on the earth are running out.
The increasing population and rapid dwindling of natural resources make some people worried about the future of the world.
(46) Since we are living in a society which is developing rapidly, it is important for us to get information as quickly as possible.
Living in a fast developing age of information, one often finds himself pressed for obtaining the scientific and social update as much as possible for professional success.
(47) Every year, with the coming of spring, the weather will get warmer. And we usually have a spring vacation at this time of the year.
I usually longs for warm weather and joys the spring break, but when it really comes, I am often caught at a loss for things to do.
(48) Practice is the key to success in all fields of activity. It is practice alone which enables us to build up speed and efficiency.
Practice makes perfect, but efficiency shortens the time needed for practice.
(49) Nearly everybody has to work, and most people envy the lucky few who are rich enough to enjoy life without working.
A small number of rich people do not need to work, and their privileges arouse envy among the majority who have to.
(50) “Haste makes waste” means that one should do everything step by step.
It is not easy to make sense of the relationship between the two proverbs, “Haste makes waste” and “Seize the hour and seize the day.”
(51) As a human being, one can hardly do without a friend.
One can hardly ignore the importance of friendship in life.
(52) I served as leader of our team. During the competition I found my ability to acquire new knowledge over very short time. Moreover, I learned to schedule our project, to share idea with partners and to push it forward when met with difficulties.
My experience as a team leader granted me the ability to absorb new information quickly, especially some expertise in management. It also gave me a new conception of cooperation and the working relationship among team members.
(53) I had the chance to understand how a sparkle of mind is turned into a market-promising product. Some of the points are:
Enlightenment and Inspiration:
(54)The key in innovation is practicality. A new product must be useful in the end.
Focus on the problems of existing products, for innovation originates in them.
(55) Never lose any new ideas. Be ready to take them.
Don’t leave any new ideas. Put them into practice.
(56) Merely a piece of idea is far from success. One should always treat it as a long-run project and sometimes systematic skills of management are required.
Focus on long-term programme and sustainable development.
(57)Lots of detailed work affords excellence.
Success results from detailed work.
2. 归纳思维
归纳思维（Inductive Reasoning）就是用归纳逻辑推理的方法进行表达。归纳思维相对于演绎思维，最重要的思维方法。简单地说，归纳思维就是从具体到抽象、从个别到一般、从局部到整体、从观察到结论的思维方式。请看下面这个经典例子：
(1) This green apple is sour.
(2) That green apple is sour.
(3) Therefore, green apples are sour.
前两句表达了两个孤立、个别的观察结果。第三句表达了在前两个观察事实基础上做出的抽象的、一般的结论。这是一个典型的三段论推理过程。再如：
(1) This store opens at nine in the morning.
(2) That store opens at nine in the morning.
(3) In general stores open at nine in the morning.
用归纳思维方法所做的结论是找出一些孤立、不相连的事实之间的内在联系，是发现一般规律的过程。归纳思维完全可以超出三段论模式，引申到一般的叙述文中去。我们看看下面这些句子。
(1) Li Kenong successfully helped Zhou Enlai and other Communist leaders escape to safety during the Kuomingtang’s crack down on Communism in 1927.
(2) Li Kenong disguised himself as a nationalist army officer and gathered treat amounts of military supply and medicine and sent them to the Eighth Route Army.
(3) Li Kennong dumped the Kuomingtang’s attempt of assassination on Mao Zedong’s life by discovering the planted time bomb in Mao’s residence in Western Hills in 1949.
(4) When Li Kenong died, the Central Intelligent Agency of the U.S. (CIA) celebrated the removal of their fear by tdking three days off work.
这四句话表达了四个具体的事实。所以我们可以得出以下结论：
Conclusion: Li Kenong is a distinguished Communist intelllligent agent. （摘自《红色情报王李克农》，中英中共党校出牌社2000年。）
归纳思维方汉一般用于伤痛述和描写文体。在描写一个人物、地点、事件，或叙述一个故事、一段回忆、一个过程时，用归纳思维方法进行表达，可以显示逻辑推理由浅入深，由表及里的严密性。
3、演绎思维
演绎思维（Deductive Reasoning）是与归纳思维相反的一种重要的逻辑思维和表达方法。演绎思维就是从抽象到具体、从一般到个别、从整体到局部、从论点到论据的思维方式。最基础、最简单的演绎思维方法也来自三段论模式。但它的第三句结论必须与第一句论点首尾相接。例如：
(1) Green apples are sour.
(2) This apple is green.
(3) Therefore this apple is sour.
与归纳思维正相反，这里第一句提出“绿苹果是酸的”这样一论点。第二句提出一个具体例证。第三句既说明“这个苹果是酸的”这一事实，又总结性地重申第一句的论点。又如：
(1) Using e-mail is a lot faster and cheaper than writing letters.
(2) Xiao Wang is using e-mail to keep contact with his girl friend studying in to U.S.
(3) Therefore, Xiao Wang’s way of communication is fast and cheap.
同归纳思维不太一样的是，归纳思维是直线性地向前发展，而演绎思维是圆型螺旋性地向上发展。另外，归纳思维比较注重观察，而演绎思维围绕论点展开。再看看下面的句子。
(1) The express reilway plays an important role in the development of national economy and improement of people’s living.
(2) The project of building the Beijing-Shanghai express railway to be launched in near future will help create a large area of superior economic basis linking some of the fast-economically-growing cities and provinces along the east coast of China.
(3) The Beijing-Shanghai express railway will ease the trans-portation pressure that has afflicted the old railway with its line taking up only 2.5% of the national railway but carrying 11.2% of the total railway transport load.
(4) Therefore, constructing the Beijing-Shanghai railway will promote national economy and facilitate travel needs in the large area of the country.
演绎思维方法主要用于论说文。作者首先提出论点，然后列举事例，最后回到论点上。这是典型的论点—分析—结论式的思维和表达过程。这种表达方法在英语论文中屡见不鲜。它表达了清晰的思维推理结构和严谨的论述步骤。
归纳和演绎是一个哲学问题，是逻辑思维中相辅相成的两个方面。不同的人习惯使用不同的思维方式。爱因斯坦认为，“用归纳的方法是不可能止入物理学的基本概念的。19世纪的研究者们正是由于不理解这一点，才导致了许多哲学上的根本错误。”（《爱因斯坦晚年文集》，第77页，2000年）。归纳和演绎各有千秋。关键是我们在写作中应根据不同的情况，采用不同的分析推理方法，保证写作思维的清晰和连贯性。
§2 逻辑混乱的句子
常见的逻辑混乱的句子有下面四类：1.简单推论；2.逻辑残缺；3.逻辑悖论；4.依赖偏见。
1．简单推论
简单推论是指句子表达了一个作者个人的或不具代表性的推理或结论。例如：
例1：Marine production and transportation are dangerous because the boat of “Dashun,” owned by Shandong Yanda Automobile Ferry Limited Corp., was wrecked on November 24 in 1999.（海上生产和运输很危险，因为1999年11月24日山东烟大汽车轮渡有限公司的“大舜”号轮船遇险沉没了。）
例2：Youngsters will commit vicious crimes, since the Xicheng Department of Beijing Security Bureau has recently smashed a gang of 19 ranging from 19 to 30, who engaged in theft, robbery and defraudation.（最近北京公安局西城分局打掉一个19人组成的年龄在19至30岁的盗窃、抢劫和诈骗团伙，所以年轻人会制造恶性案件。）
例3：Sailboating is energy-demanding and exciting, and everyone should go for it.（帆船运动是大能量、令人兴奋的运动，每个人都应该参加。）
例4：Zongzi, the pyramid-shaped dumpling made of glutinous rice wrapped in bamboo or reed leaves, which is usually eaten during the Dragon Boat Festival, is available in varieties in groceries all time through the year, and everyone should enjoy it.（粽子是锥形的，用糯米和竹叶或苇叶包的，在端午节人们才吃。现在各种各样的粽子在超市上成年累月都有卖的，每个人都应当喜欢吃。）
在例1中，不能因为“大舜号”轮船听遇险就断言所有海上生产和运输都是危险的。也说是说不能以一个事件作为再由而做出带普遍意义的结论。在例2中，同样不能以一个犯罪团伙的事例为根据而做出所有青年人都可能犯罪的结论。帆船运动是一项很好的运动，但作者不能武断地认为所有人都应该参加这项运动。因为每项运动都应因人而异，有的人喜欢，有的人不喜欢，年老体弱的人就不适合参加这项运动。同样粽子是个很受人喜爱的食品，但不能因此认为每个人都应当喜爱。比如不少美国人爱吃中国饭馆做的菜，但是他们的喜爱只是相对有限的，因为他们大多数人不愿意像中国人一样整天吃中国菜。因此说，例3和例4中做出的推论是简单和缺乏根据的。因而建立在这样思维基础上句子是松散和不严谨的。
2．逻辑残缺
逻辑残缺是指句子的逻辑概念模糊，推理重复不前，比较不当，突然转题，论题不严谨，以及以想当然和以偏概全方式进行推理。请看下面的例题与分析。
例1：It is in the public interest for the society to enrich the life of the old and retired. A recent poll indicates that, in Beijing, sixty percent of the elderly above 55 show great interest in watching movies.（全社会帮助丰富老年和退休人们的生活是有意义的工作。最近一项调查显示，在北京60%六十五岁以上的老人喜欢看电影。）
第一句中interest是指“好处”和“利益”，而第二句中的interest是指“兴趣”。在同一句中使用一个词的两个不同概念容易引起混乱。
例2：In 1999 the writer Wang Meng filed a lawsuit against “Beijing Online” for its fort on the use of his work. Last week China’s National Bureau of Copyright came up with some measures to carry on the work of cracking down on illegal copyright.（在1999年作家王蒙对“北京在线”对他的作品侵权问题起诉。上星期中国版权局制订了一些措施对侵权行为进行打击。）
第一句中的work指的是作品。第二句中的work指的是工作。两者连用引起混乱。这样的写法应尽量避免。
例3：“I think the Ministry of Education’s call on the elementary and middle schools across the country for lessening the school load is correct.”（教育部号召全国中小学校为学生减负，我认为是对的。）
“Why?”（为什么？）
“Because it says it is so.”（因为教育部说这样能减负。）
“But why should we think it is so?”（但是为什么我们要认为这样做是对的呢？）
“Because it made the call for lessening the school load of students.”（因为它说这样可以给学生减负。）
这段地话的逻辑不清，原因在于它不能把论题一步步引申，而是在原地转圈。当提出一个论题后，一定要补之以事实为基础的论证和分析。思维如果不能丝丝入扣，句子将是松散混乱的。下面这句也是如此：
例4：The point recently made by Zhu Lilan, minister of Sciences and Technology, is very insightful that an atmosphere of encouraging creation and breakthrough should be developed in China’s fields of sciences and technology, because she said China needs such a working situation in the fields of sciences and technology.（科技部长朱丽兰最近认为中国科技界要建立创新气氛的论点很有远见，因为她说中国科技领域需要这样的一种工作环境。）
作者没有说为什么朱丽兰的话是正确的，只是重复说她认为中国科技界需要建立这样的气氛。因这说这句话的思维是原地转圈式的，不能用事实和分析进一步证实她的论断是正确的。
例5：People commit crimes of theft, robbery and homicide because they are weak and selfish. They are like some fat people who know they should not eat a lot meat and sugar but do it anyway. They cannot bring their desire under control. We should understand the criminal’s behavior and try to help them change it（一些人总要犯盗窃、抢劫和杀人罪，因为他们意志薄弱而且自私。他们就像一些肥胖人，明明知道应该少吃肉和糖，但却偏偏不改。他们不能控制自己。我们应当了解并努力改变他们的行为。）
把罪犯和肥胖人放在一起比较，表面看起来合适，但是从根本上看是不恰当的。因为肥胖人不能控制自己，而并非恶意伤害自己。而罪犯却出于恶意谋取钱财有目的去伤害他人。这两个例子有本质上的不同。因此这个句子的逻辑推理有缺陷。这样的比较叫做比较不当。
例6：If you don’t work hark now in your course work and get a minimum GPA average of 2.0, you’re putting all your eggs in one basket and will hardly be able to graduate from college and find a job.（如果你现在不努力上好课，争取达到2.0的课程最低平均分，你就是冒险把所有鸡蛋放在一个篮子里，将来不能毕业及找到工作。）
现在努力学习和冒险把所有鸡蛋放在一个篮子里不可比。如果说“你要是只向这一所学校提出申请，你就是冒险把所有鸡蛋放在一个篮子里，最后可能一无所获”则是可以的（If you only apply to one university for college admission, you are putting all your eggs in one basket and may not be admitted at all.）。
例7：This shop assistant is rather rude to her customers, but she is working hard learning accounting at leisure time in an effort to obtain an associate college degree from the Board of Self-taught Higher Education.（这个商店营业员对顾客态度很粗鲁，可她业余时间在努力学习财会专业，希望从自学高考委员会得到大专毕业文凭。）
例8：This state-run enterprise is on the verge of bankruptcy. Moreover, its head is a college graduate in the 1960s, who is good at a few foreign languages.（这个国有企业面临破产的危险。另外这个企业的领导人是60年代毕业的大学生，精通好几门外语。）
在这两个例句中，第一部分和第二部分没有必然的联系。如果放在一起，使得所表达的思想含混不清。这在写作上被称为突然转换论题。从一个论题向另一个论题转换，需要完成思路转换，并且需要过渡词，如in addition, apart from, besides, moreover, meanwhile, admittedly, nevertheless, however, but等等。所以应当避免突然转换论题。
例9：I cannot go into stock market because you cannot, nor any stock experts will be able to, ensure that I will be a winner.（我不能参与股票市场，因为你不能，甚至任何股票专家也不能保证我能获利。）
保证在股票市场上赢利几乎是不可能的。以不可能证明的事情为根据，而拒绝从事某件事，从逻辑上是不通的。这样的思维可以叫做逻辑不严谨，或无论证论题。
例10：People should not swim in this swimming pool, becaust one eleven-year-old was drowned in it last Friday, and no one can guarantee that everyone is safe in swimming there.（人们不能在这个游泳池里游泳，因为上星期五，一个11岁的孩子在这里淹死了，谁也不能保证每个人都安全。）
这句话的作者认为不能保证每个人安全就是不去游泳的理由。而这一点是无法证实的。因此这句话前后两部分逻辑不严谨。
例11：I know I am going against the red in crossing the street. But look! Every pedestrian and cyclist is ignoring the red by keeping going ahead.（我知道我在闯红灯。可是你看！每个行人和骑车的人都不顾红灯，继续往前走。）
例12：Last week I withdrew a great sum from the bank and bought some luxurious furniture because many of my friends had done the same thing.（上星期我从银行取了一大笔钱，买了一些高档家具，因为我的很多朋友就是这样做的。）
上面这两句话以想当然为依据进行推理，或者说以别人怎样干为理由来说明自己的行为是正确的。大家都闯红灯并不能说明闯红灯就是对的。大家都取钱买家具并不能说明这就是明智的行为。这样的句子建立在微弱的分析思维基础之上，削弱文章的整体说服力。
例13：Ninety percent of the freshmen of this year come from cities because few of the students of International Studies that I teach come from the country.（今年的一年级新学生大多数来自城市，因为我教的国际关系专业的学生很少有来自农村的。）
例14：The CD drive in my computer broke down and I bought two new CD drives. Neither of them lasted long. So CD drives are usually defective.（我的计算机里的光驱坏了。我买了两个新的，都没用多次就又坏了。所以光驱质量都不好。）
学国际关系专业的学生可能大多数来自城市，学工程的学生就有可能有很多来自农村。不能以一专业学生来源判断整体学生来源。同样，一两个计算机部件质量不好，不能代表所有的质量不好。这种思维方式是以偏概全，论据不足。因此写句子时应该提供有代表性的数据和实证，使得论题严谨和无懈可击。
3．逻辑悖论
逻辑悖论是指句子表达的思想不严谨，推理混乱不清。请看下面的例句和分析。
例1：Either we will have to overhaul our curriculum or the whole educational system will collapse.（要么我们得调整我们的教学大纲，否则我们的教育体系就垮台了。）
这个句子使用了either…or…这个短语表达了“不这样…就那样…”的惟一两种选择。事情的发展往往既不是这样也不是那样。因此表达应该尽量留有充分余地。这样的句子不仅在推理上不严密，而且会使读者感到作者思维单一。过去我国长期受极“左”思潮影响，在语言表达上人们也往往喜欢“不是这样就是那样”的两种选择思维方式。而事实上事物发展是复杂的，往往有多种选择。两种选择思维方式显得思维单一、简单、片面、武断。它也是静止、孤立、违反辩证法的思维方式。因此在英语写作中应尽量避免。
例2：“It is going to be a thunderstorm or clear sky tomorrow?”（明天大雨还是晴天？）
“It will be cloudy.”（阴天。）
与前面一句相同，这一句同样提出“大雨”和“晴天”两个选择。而“阴天”介于两者之间，是否定两者论的典型回答。
例3：The prices of eggs rose sharply last month because the temperature had stayed in the range of 30-35 Celsius for one month.（由于一个多月开气温度一直在摄氏30至35度之间，上个月鸡蛋价钱涨了很多。）
例4：He went down to the south with his family on a pleasure trip during the last May First holiday season. After he got back to school, he found his English writing improved a lot. He believed the travel helped his learning.（今年五一节他和家人去南方旅游。回到学校后，他发现他的英语写作提高了不少。他认为旅游有助于学习。）
高温天气与鸡蛋价格是先后发生的两件事，但没有直接的联系。如果认为它们有联系，则需要进一步解释清楚，是什么原因使得鸡蛋价格在温度上涨后也上涨了。同样，去南方旅游与英语写作没有直接的联系。如果作者认为有联系，则必须进一步解释原因，否则句子的逻辑出现混乱。
4、依赖偏见
依赖偏见的句子不从论点出发，经过深入分析，达到结论；而是把论证或结论建立在不相关的事件上，或者从感情出发做出判断。使用“你借矣”这样的看法，纠其人而疏其事，是偏见利用法。请看下面的例句和分析。
例1：You ask me to quit smoking. But you yourself smoke one pack and a half a day.（你要求我戒烟。可你自己一天抽一盒半纸烟。）
例2：Our proposal for promoting sales of our products was rejected for lack of practical measures, but no one has ever put forth any workable proposal.（我们关于促销产品的计划因为缺少具体措施而被否定了，可是到现在为止，谁也没提出过什么有效的建议。）
以上两个例句都是以“你自己错了”的论题为基础来说明自己的观点。“你自已不戒烟，所以你没有再由让我戒烟。”“别人没提出建议，因此我们的建议就是正确的。”这样的思维方式建立在偏见的基础上，使句子缺乏逻辑严谨。
例3：This representative believed many schools failed to give our children adequate psychological and emotional care. But he is wrong. He himself is a child abuser who often beats and swears at his nine-year-old boy.（这个代表认为很多学校和家长没有给孩子们足够的心理和感情上的关怀。可是他错了。他自己就是一个孩子虐待狂，常常打骂他九岁的儿子。）
上面这个例句以人身指责代替分析推理。句子应该针对论题。偏离论题的思维方式只能削弱句子的论点，并使诸者感到作者缺乏诚意。
以上讨论了四类逻辑混乱的句子，有些是中国学生容易犯的错误，有些是不常见的。逻辑混乱反映了思维不严谨，而思维不严谨往往使句子蹩脚、沉重，但更大的危害是打乱后面的思维，使下面的论述无法清晰地展开。因此句子的逻辑性强是保证句子正确、简洁和优美的关键。

§3  句子的思路与表达
前面两部分分别谈了英语句子的规律性和思维在表达中的重要地位。在这第三部分中我将讨论标准的英语句子是如何在思维基础上建立起来的。英语句子有它的规律，这个规律就是英语思维方式。如果每个中国学生能够在自己头脑中培养建立起这个英语思维方式——也许和乔姆斯基讲的“语言习得机制”（Language Acquisition Device）一样——那么思维方式和汉语思维方式不同，这种区别来自文化区别。而文化影响属于上层建筑，受经济生活的制约。因此说，辩证叭物主义的在这里再次被证明是正确的。中国和英美国家有着不同的经济发展历史，当代经济生活也大相径庭。因此文化上的区别就是必然的。随之而来的是思维方式，风俗习惯，语言变异上的区别。用中国式思维去写英语句子，就好比拿着木工工具去干车工的活儿，完全不配套。在我国，大多数懂一些英语的人，包括学很多年英语的人，写不好标准英语的症结就在于此。在没有地道英语环境的条件下，我们有没有可能培养出英语思维方式，以便写好英语句子。答案是：有！这就是从理性上发现和找出英语思维方式的特征，从主观上去克服中国式思维方式，并进行大量的阅读和写作训练，这是成年人在不利条件下（the foreign language learni
ng situation）学好英语的惟一出路.概况起来说就是，干什么活儿用什么工具，讲汉语时用汊语思维，讲英语时用英语思维。
英语思维方式有几个重要特征。
1、“我”字当头
英美文化强调个人。而儒家文化强调他人。“我”字当头就是以我、我们、你、你们、他、他们，这些行为的执行者为重心和中心展中表达。强调主语，强调动作的执行者。英语强调动作。汉语强调状态。英语常把行为者和动作放在句首。汉语常把状语放在重要地方。例如：
I found my bike lost when I walked out of the Shengli wovie theater after watching Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon yes-terday afternoon.（昨天下午在胜利电影院看完《卧虎藏龙》出来时，我发现我的自行车不见了。）
当然用另一种方法表达也可以。
Yesterday afternoon when I walked out of the Shengli movie theater after watching Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon, I found my bike lost.
但是比起前者来略显头重脚轻。又例如：
Many recently opened summer resorts around Beijing are filled with pleasure-seeking natives of Beijing.（北京附近新开放的夏季旅游点到处都是北京人。）
比较
Many natives of Beijing are enjoying themselves in the recently opened summer resorts around the city.
这一句将动作执行者置于句首，这种表达方式更符合英语习惯。
2、直截了当
英美文化突出坦率，特别是在英语中更是这样。中国文化推崇含蓄。英语句子和英语修辞倾向直截了当的表达。汉语句子和汉语修倾向含蓄婉转的表达。例如：
If you want to get more help from me, I would be glad to do my best for you.（如果你希望从我这儿获得更多的帮助，我将愿意帮忙。）
If you need more help, just let me know.
这二句话反映了英语思维的简练和直截了当。
另外，大部分英语句子使用动作的主动时态。中国学生喜欢作动作的被动时态。例如：
The sone of Youth was written by her.（《青春之歌》是她写的。）
比较
She wrote The Song of Youth.
当然如果是属于交际场合中的礼节，英美人在用词上比中国人更显含蓄。例如，如果要表达“你要买点儿什么？”（What do you want to buy?）这样的中文思想，英美人会说：
What can I do for you?
或者
Can I help you?
又例如，用中式思维表达下面的思想：
A: Do you think I should buy a car?（你认为我该买辆汽车吗？）
B: You’d better not buy it now.（你现好现在别买。）
比较英美人飞惯用的表达方汉表示同样的思想：
A: Do you think I should buy a car?
B: I would not buy it at this moment.（目前你最好别买。直译是：如果我是你，我就不买。）
3、事件表达的具体性
本文中“事件”这个词泛指所有实在的物体，通俗一点儿可以理解为“内容”。它与“过程”相辅相成并紧密相连。“过程”也就是事物发展的方法，也可能理解为“形式”。事件表达的具体性是指句子中的句词，或者句子要表达的事物具体、准确，不能含糊其辞，让读者去猜。例如：
The good painting competition drew crowds of students.
这里的good和students就属于用词不准确，不具体。“好”和“坏”也非常笼统和抽象，在英语叵子中应尽量少使用。如果你the threedays well-organized painting compertition就很具体，给读者一个清晰具体的信息。同样，student可分为elementary school students(first to fifth graderw), the middle school students(sixth to eighth graders), high school students(ninth to twelfth graders), college students(freshman, sophomore, junior and senior), graduate students(master students, Ph. D. students, or first-year/second-year graduate students, etc.)。除非在前面已经提到，否则第一次出现应该具体表达所指的人。同样，“a good wife”就远不如“a diligent and considerate wife”具体和准确。
4、语言表达的形象性
西方文化区别于东方文化的一个显著特点是社会生活的自然化。撞单地说，就是抽象的、人类的、感情的东西可以用具体的、自然界的、物质的事物来表述。比如，a lot of bikes可以用a sea of bikes来表达，因为sea是一种形象生动的词汇；in full development可以用in full wing来表达，因为swing是从秋千的摆动引申而来的；the rising prices可以用the skyrocketing prices来表达，等等。语言表达的形象就是用自然界相对应的事物和动作描写人类社会的活动，使得句子简练生动。这种表达不只局限于句词，表现具体动作的动词也可以表现抽象的意义，也可以转换成名词。例如rain这个单词是“下雨”的意思，它可以用作名词，也可以用作动词。但是在许多地道的英语句子中，rain的具体意义被引申使用于抽象思维，从而表现出高度的形象和生动性。下面的几个例句就表现了它的各个层次上的用法：
(1) It is raining hard.
(2) It is torrential rain.
(3) The tennis game was rained out.（由于下雨，网球比赛被迫停止。）
(4) The children rained questions on their teacher.（孩子们像雨点一样的问题使老师应接不暇。）
(5) Debris from the explosion rained down the slope. （爆炸后的碎粒像雨点一样落到斜波上。）
(6) Come rain or shine, I will see you on Thursday.（不论发生什么，咱们星期四见面。）
西方人喜爱用自然界具体形象表达生活中的抽象行为。既然rain可以如此表达，那么我们可以将其引申，同rain意思相同的词汇如drizzle, shower, downpour, storm, thunder, thunderstorm都可以用于抽象意义。例如：
(1) The priest drizzled water on the baby’s head.（牧师在婴儿头上洒了一点儿水。）
(2) The speech was liberally drizzle with jokes about the incident.（发言中有意掺杂了一些对这件事的玩笑。）
(3) His boss showered him with praise for everything he had done for the company.（他为公司做的每件事，他的老件都要大加赞赏。）
(4) A shower of confetti fell on the newly-married couple outside the church.（在教堂外，五彩纸屑纷纷落在新郎新娘身上。）
(5) She received a downpour of criticism at the meeting.（在会上她遭到激烈的批评。）
(6) She stormed out of my office.（她愤怒地站出我的办公室。）
(7) The issue has provoked a stormy debate between the left and the right of the party.（这件事引起了党内左右党派激烈的争论。）
(8) “I never want to see you again,” he thundered.（“我再也不想见到你了，”他大声吼道。）
(9) A thunderstorm of laughing rose in the next door.（隔壁屋中突然传出一阵雷鸣般的笑声。）
5、时间表达的现实性
时间和空间是相辅相成的一对事物。英语表达在时间概念上表现了极强的具体性和现实性。我国学生喜欢用较大的时间概念，如nowadays, at present, in that time, recently, for a long time。英美作者常用具体的时间名词，如these years, the decade, these days, at that historical moment/point, the year, the month, the week, the day, the hour, the minute, the second, the moment, the point。这种差别可能出于经济生活的特征。现代化西方人的生活节奏比较快，造成时间概念上的紧凑，因而使用较小的时间单位。我们常听美国人说，“You have 168 hours a week so you have plenty of time to complete the work.”也许以后我们的生活节奏快了，也会使用较小的时间单位。这一类常见的例子有：
(1) I have no idea about what is going to happen at this moment.(比较: I have no idea about what is going to happen at this time.)
(2) The year of 1978 marks an important moment in modern Chinese history.(比较: The year of 1978 marks an important time in modern Chinese history.)
(3) I tried calling her the instant I got home.(比较: I tried calling her as soon as I got home.)
(4) I have been looking for a job for so long that I have almost reached the stage of despair.(比较: I have been looking for a job for so long that I have almost reached the situation of despair.)
(5) In his early years Benjamin Franklin worked in his brother’s printing shop.(比较: In this childhood, Benjamin Franklin worked in his brother’s printing shop.)
(6) I have put in many hours of helping him move into his new home.(比较: I have spent a lot of time helping him move into his new home.)
(7) She can’t forget those heart-breaking days in the Anti-Japanese War.(比较: She can’t forget her miserable life in the Anti-Japanese War.)
因此我们说，在写作中思维要复杂，但表达要具体。使用较小的时间名词，这正是英语写作突出的特点，也是我国学生需要掌握的技巧。
6、空间表达的方向性
空间是指动作和行为。英语在表达动作时具有强烈的方向性：这与汉语截然不同。例如：
(1) I am going down to Shanghai for the summer.
(2) He is going up to Beijing next week for a job interview.
这两句中的副词down和up没有实在的意义，有时候可以省略。但表达出来就具有强烈的方向感。它们指示方向，down指南方，up指北方。汉语中则不容易表易出来。其他方向副词还有表示两边的out，表示距离的over，表示内外的in, inside, out, outside。比较普遍的用法有：
(1) Could you come up inside here so we can talk about something personal?（说话时对方可能在窗外楼下院子里。当然这样连续使用3个副词的用法不常见。）
(2) The old man worked the whole morning out there in his vegetable plot.（强调外边）
(3) Please take a look at the sentence down at the bottom of the page.（强调下方）
(4) On her arrival in Beijing and with little money on her, the little girl walked all the way from the Yongdingmen Railway Station up to Xizhimen.（强调北方）
当然空间表达的方向性并不是在每句话中都显示出来。但是明白它的重要性可以极大提高英语理解和写作能力，增强用英语思维的整体能力。
7、动词短语的简洁性
动词短语是指动词与副词或介词联用的短语，如give up, take off, pick up, make up, come on, figure out, speed up, slow down, lay out, set up, draw on, go through, fall short, dwell on, arrive at, do away with, depend on, grow up, turn down, dress up, account for, count on, rule out, take into account, bring about, amount to, carry out, feed on, keep up, head for, cling to, stick to, hang on, show up。还包括一些介词和副词短语短语，如at least, as to, to and fro, back and forth, due to, in effect, on the contrary, on the whole, as a result, according to, at length, on the one hand…and on the other, apart from, in addition, in contrast, in conclusion, in all, on average, at the heart of, in sight。动词短语在英语中起着极为重要的作用。它们表达简练、清晰、生动，使用频率极高，是英语句子表达皇冠上的明珠。他们在英语句子中的作画用不可替代。掌握好动词短语是提高英语能力和掌握英语写作的关键一步。
8.抽象和具体的统一性:of短语
英语和汉语由于思维的差异在抽象和具体这两个概念上有根本的区别。在汉语里，“一瓶水”、“两杯咖啡”、“一线光亮”、“一大笔钱”、“一阵风”、“这类人”，这些短语都表现不出抽象和具体之分。而在英语里，它们被表达为：
a bottle of water
two cups of coffee
a beam of light
a great sum of money
a gust of wind
this kind of people
其中bottle, cups, beam, sum, gust, kind是具体名词，而water, coffee, light, money, wind, people是抽象名词。当然water和people也可以用作可数的具体名词。但在这里它们被用作抽象概念。类似的还有：
fits of cough
a streak of blood
a scrap of evidence
a stroke of luck
a blast of cold air
a sudden rush of dizziness
a wide span of responsibility
这一类名词和介词联用的词组可以称作“of”短语，它是英语和汉语的一个重要区别。Of前面的名词是可数具体名词，而of后面的名词是不可数抽象名词。这是英语表达中的固定用法，与汉语截然不同。造成这种表达上的差异，追究其根源，主要来源于长期文化和思维演变的影响。东方人倾向抽象、演绎、综合的思维方式；西方人倾向具体、归纳、分析的思维方式。如果能从理性上理解这种思维差异造成的表达区别，将会便中国学生在学习写英语句子上大大受益。
9、特殊动词的使用
英语中有一些特殊动词具有它们特殊的用法。而这些特殊用法是根据西方人思维方式演变开成的。因此从理论上掌握它们的思维基础，对于写好英语句子有事半功倍的效果。
第一类特殊动词：require, order, demand, suggest等等。这类动词可以叫做命令或祈使动词。它们要求与名词、动词不定式或者虚拟式宾语从句联用。例如：
(1) The teacher demanded an answer from the students to the question he raised.
(2) They demanded to go inside the building for a security check.
(3) The librarian demanded he return the books he checked out six months ago.
因为这些动词表达要求和命令，因此与之伴随的句子成分都表示出相同的口气，特别是（3）句中的虚拟时态，其中should被省略了。类似的动词还有许多，你应该从思维着手，在词义上动脑筋，去发现相同类型的动词。这样你在以后写句子时，就可以满怀信心地使用它们固有的伴随结构，而不会出错误，即便你从前没有见到过它的用法。比如，假如你不知道动词order如何用，但是你知道order有命令的意思，那你就可以说：
The captain ordered that all his officers should attend the parade.
或者
The captain ordered that all his officers attend the parade.(与上面C句用法相同)
同样
Her parents suggested she try again in the following year’s national entrance exams.
I sugest he try the foreign languages bookstore in Haidian.
第二类特殊动词：rob of , deprive of , strip of  accuse of , assure of , convince of . 这类动词可以被称为“双宾语of动词”。它们的宾语是由第一宾语和第二宾语组成。第一宾语一般是动作的承受者，一般是人或地方；而第二宾语是动作的对象，一般是事物。它们的这种特殊用法是由英语思维的特殊需要所决定的，即强调和突出动作的随者，即人或地方。所以动作的随者紧接动词。而动作的对象是第二宾语，处于从属地位，所以被放在介词of的后边。例如：
(1) Last Friday, he robbed the bank of $ 2 million . （突出bank，将其放在前边）
(2) Poverty deprived these village children of the opportunities for education . (突出children,将其放在前边)。
(3) On the morning of July 29 , 2001  Zhang Jian stripped himself of his clothes and started swimming across the English Channel.(突出himself,将其放在前边)
所以，这类动词在使用时，有时其中一个宾语常常初省略掉。但是你不要忘记它们的固定用法。例如：
(1) I have been robbed!
(2) She glanced at the wall and then quickly stripped of its pictures.
你能把省略的宾语复原吗？如果能，你就懂得了这类动词的用法。这一类特殊动词很多，你应该从词义上发现和找到它们，使用这们在思维控制下的统一固定的用法，而不会出错误。例如：
(1) He was accued of the murder.
(2) He tried to convince the jury of his innocence.
(3) He assured me of his brother’s qualification for the job.
(4) This visit to this village reminded me of my stay in Beian , Heilongjiang , as an educated youth during the Cultural Revolution.
稍微引申一下，你会发现另一类相似的动词用法，动词+from+名词。例如：
(1) The doctor dedicated his life to freeing the local people from the fatal disease.
(2) The medicine released me from years of suffering from allergy.
(3) Wang Zhidong was released from his position.
第三类特殊动词：see , watch, hear , notice, overhear, feel.  这类动词可以称作“感官动词。”它们的主语一般是人。它们常常与无to的动词不定式或者动名词（动词的-ing形式）连用，以表达伴随动作同时发生，同时也使句子更为生动。比较使用动词的定语从句，后者则显得很蹩脚，也不符合标准英语习惯。例如：
(1) From this window we could see the children playing in the yard. (比较：From this window we could see the children were playing in the yard).
(2) I watched Yu Lina playing the violin concerto “The Butterfly Lovers” at Beijing Music Hall last summer. (去年夏天我在北京音乐厅看了俞丽拿演奏小提琴协奏曲“梁祝”。)（比较：I watched Yu Lina was playing the violin concerto “The Butterfly Lovers” at Bejing Music Hall last summer. ）
(3) She heard he say he would quit his job. (比较：She heard he said he would quit his job.)
(4) We noticed a police van stop outside their house. (比较：We noticed a police van stopped outside their house.)
(5) She overheard them talking about her last night. (比较：She overheard they were talking about her last night.)
(6) He felt something snap inside his knee. (比较：He felt something snapped inside his knee.)
第四类特殊动词：look, appear, sound, smell, taste, feel. 这类特殊动词可以叫做“感觉动词”。它们的主语一般是物，但有时也可以是人，如下面的（2）句。它们都是表示与身体某部分相关的感觉动作，常常与形容词连用。例如：
(1) This dress looks nice on you.
(2) The executive appeared tired this mornig.
(3) Your vacation plan sounds great.
(4) These deep-fried twisted dough sticks smell good.(这些油条闻着真香)
(5) The milk tastes sour.
(6) The ground felt cold.
这类动词不是很多，但很常用。所以当你掌握了他们在思维上的构成基础，就可以写出很多优美的句子。
第五类特殊动词：be busy doing, spend time doing。这类动词可以称为“时间动词”，因为它们表达了一种“时间紧”的口气。这类动词不太多，但与它们连用的时间名词却不少。所以说他们也同样表达了一类英语思维倾向。例如：
(1) She was busy writing out Christmas cards.
(2) He spent three hours typing his paper.
这类动词的旧式用法是使用介词in，即be busy in doing和spend time in doing。这里使用的时间名词多种多样，如year, month, week, minute, second, moment, while, decade, generation。
10．特殊名词的使用
特殊名词是指表示“因难、问题、麻烦”（problem, difficulty, trouble）这类意思的名词和与它们连用的动名词。例如：
(1) They have difficulty proving he is guilty.
(2) I had problem getting here.
(3) Parents often have trouble finding restaurants that welcome young children.
旧式用法一般要在动名词前面加介词in，例如第一名，They have difficulty in proving he is guilty。这和上面第五类特殊动词相似。从英语思维的角度来看，“因难、问题、麻烦”这类名词与将要进行的动词相联系，所以必须与表示动作的词汇连用。另外这类词可分为抽象和具体名词，或者不可数和可数名词。上面几个例子是用于它们的抽象和不可数意义，所以该名词以单数形式出现，而且前面没有冠词。它们的具体和可数形式的用法如下：
(1) Did you have any problems understanding my lecture?
(2) My father has difficulties using his computer.
但这两句在语法结构上与前面几句不一样。在这里它们主要作修饰主语的状语。
11、伴随状语的使用
伴随状语虽然是一种普通的语法现象，但是它显示了英语思维中两个同时发生的动作可以按主次分开，使句子简练、生动。用主句表达主要动作，伴随状语表达辅助动作。例如：
(1) Smoking a pipe, he browsed through a magazine in the room.
(2) The paintings were on the floor, leaning against the wall.
(3) Pinching and scraping we managed to get by when we were first married.
(4) Laughing and yelling, the boy raced into the room and brought us the new.
12、礼节上的含蓄
礼节上的含蓄是指在英语句子表达中使用婉转协商的口气和适当的语态，表达一种尊重的意向。例如：
(1) What can I do for you?（此句常用于商店里营业员问顾客买什么东西）
(2) Can I help you？（同上）
(3) I would talk to my adviser first before taking on this project.（要是我，我就先和我的导师谈一谈，然后再着手这个项目。注意：这里没有用我国学生常用的You should talk to your adviser first before taking on this project.）
(4) I would appreciate it very much should you let me know your decision at your earliest convenience.（如果能在您方便的时候尽早退知我你们的决定，我将非常感谢。注意：这里没有用我国不生常用的I would appreciate it very much should you tell me your decision at your earliest convenience.）
使用I would like to do…比You should do…或者You can do…要婉转得多。例如：
(1) I’d like to buy ten envelopes and two 80-cent stamps.（比较，Can you give me ten envelopes and two 80-cent stamps?）
(2) Would you please not smoke here?（比较：You should not smoke here.）
动词tell带用命令的口气，最好避免使用，除非用于和关系密切的人谈话中，例如：
(1) Could you let me know the flight number for Kunming this afternoon?（比较：Can you tell me the flight number for Kunming this afternoon?）
(2) I would like to let you know some of the company’s rules.（比较：I want to tell you some of the company’s rules.）
(3) Can you tell me his e-mail address? I want to contact him.（此种为朋友之间的用法。）

第三部分词汇积累篇

（形容词部分）

absurd 荒谬的Their request is absurd.
addictive
affectionate
aggressive
alert
arduous
artistic
authoritative权威的an authoritative opinion
awkward
balanced
cogent 强有力的；令人信服的a cogent argument
cold-blooded
cold-hearted
compassionate
compatible 能共处的；能共存的；能相容的
Their marriage came to an end because they were simply not compatible with each other.
Complicated 错综的；复杂的a complicated machine
Confident 确信的；有信心的；自信的
Peter is confident of winning the post as the assistant to the managing director.
Contemptible 卑劣的
It was contemptible of him to speak like that about a respectable teacher!
他这样议论一位受人尊敬的教师真是为人所不齿!
It was a contemptible trick to tell lies and play on an old friend!
说谎耍弄老朋友是卑鄙伎俩!
contributive
corrupt 腐败的a corrupt judge
delicious
demanding 需要技能的；要求高的；苛求的a demanding job / a demanding boss苛刻的老板
detrimental 有害的A poor diet is detrimental to one’s health.
Devious
不直的a devious route曲折的道路
不正直的；狡猾的His devious nature was shown in half-lies and small dishonesties.
Dishonorable 不名誉的，可耻的
Disturbed 心理不正常的She is emotionally disturbed.她情绪失常。
Eccentric 古怪的；偏执的The old lady has some eccentric habits.
Economical 节省的Bicycles are regarded as an economical alternative to buses whose fares have increased 5 times in the past 3 years.
enlightened开通的，开明的
An enlightened government should permit the free expression of political opinion.
Exotic 异乎寻常的an exotic purple bird一种珍奇的紫色鸟
Fallacious 欺骗的/谬误的
fashionable
feasible 可行的；行得通的
fictitious 虚构的；假的Hamlet was a fictitious character.
Flexible
易弯曲的
灵活的；有伸缩性的
We can visit your company on Monday or Tuesday; our plans are fairly flexible.
"我们可以在星期一或星期二到你们公司来,我们的计划是相当灵活的。"
fruitful 成功的；有收获的a fruitful meeting  多产的；果实多的
glamorous 迷人的；富有魅力的a glamorous girl
gorgeous 宜人的；爽快的gorgeous weather宜人的天气/美丽的；豪华的；灿烂的
humane
ignorant
（常与of, in连用）无知识的；不知道的
She is very ignorant about her own country.
她对自己的国家很不了解。
What his plans are I am quite ignorant of.
我一点也不知道他的计划是什么。
愚昧的；幼稚的
impressive
inborn 天赋的；天生的an inborn talent for art / Birds have an inborn ability to fly.
Incompatible
不能和谐共存的，不能并立的
His plan is incompatible with my intentions.
他的计划与我的意图相抵触。
Water is incompatible with fire.
水火不相容。
Inconceivable
难以想像的
It's almost inconceivable that a handicapped girl is very independent and lives all alone.
"一个残疾姑娘居然自食其力,独自生活,简直难以想象。"
不可能的；不可能发生的
He can't go on holiday alone; it's inconceivable.
"他不会一个人去度假,这是不可能的。"
indecent 猥亵的；下流的/不恰当的
indifferent
（与to连用）不感兴趣的；漠不关心的；不注意的
It is quite indifferent to me whether you go or stay.
对你的去留我毫不关心。
I am indifferent to their arguments.
我对他们的争论毫不关心。
平常的；不好不坏的
His English is indifferent.
他的英文平常。
Indispensable
绝对需要的；不可缺少的
She's become quite indispensable to the company.
她已成了公司里少不了的人。
Air and water are indispensable to life.
空气和水是生命所必需的东西。
Inexhaustible 用不完的，用之不竭的
Infectious
通过空气传染的/有传染性的
"Colds are infectious, and so are some eye diseases."
"感冒是传染的,有些眼病也是传染的。"
inferior
下级的
an inferior court (of law)
初等法院
（常与to连用）次的，劣等的，较劣的
goods inferior to sample
质地不如样品的货物
No inferior products should be allowed to pass.
决不允许放过任何次品。
His work is inferior to mine.
他的工作不如我。
Infirm 弱的, 不坚固的, 柔弱的an inform body/be infirm of purpose
Influential 有影响的, 有势力的
inhumane
initially
最初，开始
"Initially, she opposed the plan, but later she changed her mind."
"起初她反对这计划,但后来她改变了主意。"
inquisitive
好奇的；好问的
Don't be so inquisitive; I'm not telling you what I've promised not to say.
"别这么好管闲事了,我不会告诉你我允诺不讲的事。"
insalubrious 不利健康的；对身体有害的 an insalubrious climate
instructive  Experience furnishes very instructive lessons.
Intellectual intellectual curiosity/ intellectual powers
Interim
暂时的；临时的
interim trial
临时试验
"The full report isn't ready yet, but you can see the interim report."
"正式报告尚未写好,但你可以先看看这份临时报告。"
interpersonal
intimate亲近的；亲密的；熟悉的
intimate friends
知心朋友
Do you believe these two intimate friends used to be mutual sworn enemies?
"这两位亲密朋友彼此间过去曾经是不共戴天的死敌,你相信吗?"
个人的；私人的
an intimate diary
私人日记
（常与with连用）性关系的
因有密切关系而得的
inviolable 神圣的, 不可亵渎的, 不可侵犯的
inward
在内的；向内的
Her words were inward and indistinct when she was in a state of half unconsciousness.
"她处于半昏迷状态时,她说话的声音低沉,模糊不清。"
内心的；心灵上的
irreparable
不能修补的
The flood did irreparable damage to the building.
洪水对这幢楼房的损坏是无法弥补的。
irresistible
irritating 使愤怒的, 刺激的, 气人的
isolating 孤立的,绝缘的
laudable 值得赞美的, 值得称赞的 a laudable attempt
lavish
慷慨的；挥霍的；过多的
lavish gifts
丰富的礼物
a lavish spender
挥霍无度的人
"Skyscrapers become lavish consumers, and wasters, of electric power."
"摩天大楼成为电力的消费大户,甚至成为电力的浪费者。"
大量的
lavish praise
溢美之词
legitimate 合法的；依法的
loyal
luxurious
丰盛的;舒适的；豪华的
a luxurious hotel
豪华的旅馆
奢侈的；贪图享受的
She had luxurious habits.
她享受惯了。
Magnanimous
宽宏大量的；慷慨的；心地高尚的
a magnanimous leader
宽宏大量的领导人
a magnanimous gesture
慷慨的态度
mature
misleading 易误解的, 令人误解的
misrepresented
误传；曲解
The newspaper misrepresented what the writer had said.
报纸歪曲了作家所说的话。
虚报，慌报
money-oriented
multilateral
多边的；多国参加的
a multilateral agreement
多边协定
nourished
滋养；给…以营养
nourishing food
滋补食物
孕育，怀有（希望等）
to nourish a dislike
抱有希望
obscure
难懂的
不著名的，无名的
old-fashioned/ out of date
palatable 美味的；可口的；好吃的愉快的；宜人的；惬意的
perilous 危险的；冒险的The nation’s finances were in a perilous state.
permissive
pernicious 有害的；有毒的；致命的 a pernicious influence/lie/habit/disease
pornographic 色情的, 色情作品的
potential 可能的；潜在的Every seed is a potential plant.
practical
preferential preferential duties特惠关税
pressing
紧迫的；迫切的/恳切的；再三恳求的
They were so pressing that I couldn't refuse.
他们再三恳求，我无法拒绝。
Prevailing
（风）常吹的
盛行的；流行的
a prevailing style
一种流行款式
She wore her hair in the prevailing fashion and looked ever prettier.
"她梳了一个流行的发型,看起来越发标致了。"
professional
prosperous
prudent
慎重的；谨慎的；明智的
prudent in speech
慎言
It's prudent to take a thick coat in cold weather when you go out.
在寒冷的天气下外出时带上件厚外套是谨慎的。
Psychological
心理的
心理学上的
a psychological problem
一个心理学上的问题
Is there any possible psychological explanation for his bad health?
"他健康状况不好,有没有可能具有什么心理上的原因呢?"
rational
讲道理的；懂道理的
有理性的；合理的
a rational suggestion
合理的建议
resentful 愤怒的；憎恨的
reverse
reversed, reversing
倒退；倒转
He reversed the car.
他倒车。
翻转
She reversed the paper.
她把纸翻过来。
改变；使成相反的东西
He reversed the judgment and set the prisoner free after all.
他撤销了原判，终于释放了囚犯。
Rewardin有价值的；有益的
a rewarding job
有价值的职业g
ridiculous
rigid 坚决的；坚定不变的rigid ideas固执的看法
rough
粗糙的；崎岖不平的
a rough road
一条崎岖不平的路
a rough surface
粗糙的表面
The monkey's skin has a rough feel.
猴子的皮肤有一种粗糙感。
狂暴的，汹涌的（风雨、海水等）
rough winds
狂暴的风
The sea was rough in the storm.
大海在风暴中波涛汹涌。
粗糙的，简陋的（食物或居住条件）
概略的，大致的，粗略的（计划、估算等）
a rough drawing
草图
起草稿用的（纸）
刺耳的，难听的（声音）
倒霉的；难熬的
to have a very rough time
度过一段难熬时期；吃苦头
self-contemptuous 自卑的
shabby
破烂的，褴褛的，破旧的（衣服）
shabby clothes
破旧的衣服
衣衫褴褛的，衣着不整的，邋遢的（人）
卑鄙的；低劣的；不公的
a shabby excuse
卑鄙的藉口
sheltered
sociable 好交际的；随和的
sole
仅有的；独一无二的；唯一的
You have to follow the guide whose sole interest is to cover all spots according to his strict schedule.
"你得跟着导游走,而导游的唯一兴趣就是按照他那一成不变的时间表,走过所有风景点。"
stern
严厉的，严格的
a stern teacher
严格的老师
苛刻的；难以忍受的
a stern taskmaster
苛刻的监工
坚决的；不让步的
stressful
stringent 苛刻的，必须严格遵守的（规则）
stylish 时髦的, 漂亮的, 流行的
superficial 表面的, 肤浅的, 浅薄的
tempting 吸引人的，迷人的 a tempting offer
time-honored
traditional
typical
unadvised 欠思虑的, 轻率的, 未曾受到劝告的
uncompromising 不妥协的, 不让步的, 强硬的
unconcerned
uneasy
unethical 不道德的，缺乏职业道德的
unfeeling 残酷的；冷酷的；无情的
unhealthy
unified
unique
唯一的，独一无二的
独特的；少见的
a rather unique position
特殊的情况
That building is unique because all the others like it were destroyed.
那座建筑很独特，因为所有像它那样的其他建筑都毁坏了。
unjust
unscrupulous (be scrupulous in)
unsociable
untimely
unwholesome
utterly 完全地, 绝对地, 彻底地
vexing 令人烦恼的 a vexing problem
vivid
voluntary
自愿的；自发的；志愿的
She is a voluntary worker at the hospital.
她是在这家医院义务服务的。
靠自愿捐助的
随意的
the voluntary movements
随意动作
vulnerable 易受攻击的, 易受...的攻击(be vulnerable to )
well-grounded
wholesome
有益于健康的
wholesome food
有益健康的食物
有益于身心的

衷心祝福大家在水平一考试中取得好成绩^_^

xmsand
二零零五年春

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※ 来源:·BBS 水木清华站 smth.org·[FROM: 166.111.66.*]

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